In photovoltaics, tellurium is primarily used in combination with cadmium to form cadmium telluride (CdTe). Because the material strongly absorbs sunlight, a semiconductor layer just a few micrometers thick is sufficient. As a thin-film technology, CdTe therefore requires significantly less semiconductor material than conventional crystalline silicon cells.
Thin-film technology saves material and energy and is well-suited for high-volume production. The modules are primarily used in large solar farms. The technology is particularly widespread in the U.S., where CdTe has a significantly higher market share than the global average. The technology is also gaining importance in India. Crystalline silicon modules, on the other hand, generally achieve higher efficiency and therefore dominate in rooftop installations, where available space is limited. After crystalline silicon, CdTe is the most widely used photovoltaic technology worldwide. So far, it has only achieved a single-digit market share, but CdTe technology is also likely to benefit from the continued growth of the photovoltaic market.
For tellurium, CdTe photovoltaics have now become by far the most important application area and a key driver of demand. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, solar cells accounted for about 40 percent of global tellurium consumption as recently as the early 2020s. By 2025, that figure had already risen to 70 percent.
After thin-film photovoltaics, thermoelectrics is the most important application area for tellurium. Here, it is primarily used in thermoelectric components based on bismuth telluride. When current flows through such a component, one side absorbs heat while the other dissipates it. This so-called Peltier effect enables precise cooling without a compressor or other moving parts.
Thermoelectric components are used, for example, to cool and stabilize the temperature of electronics, sensors, and medical devices. Conversely, they can harness temperature differences to generate electricity. In this way, for example, waste heat from vehicle engines or industrial plants can be harnessed. However, due to the comparatively high costs and low efficiency, thermoelectric power generation has so far been less widespread than cooling and is largely limited to specialized applications.
Another well-established application of tellurium is metallurgy. Small amounts of tellurium are added to steels and copper alloys to improve their machinability. This makes the materials easier to cut, drill, or mill. In the case of copper, the electrical conductivity—which is important for electrical applications—is largely preserved.
In lead alloys, tellurium ensures that the material can better withstand repeated shocks and stresses. In cast iron, this additive influences how the metal solidifies as it cools and where particularly hard areas form. Even very small amounts of tellurium are sufficient for this.
Small amounts of tellurium are used in the rubber industry and electronics, among other fields. In the production of special rubber compounds, tellurium-containing additives can aid or accelerate vulcanization. During vulcanization, the long molecular chains of the rubber are cross-linked, resulting in a more elastic and durable rubber.
Tellurium-containing compound semiconductors, such as mercury cadmium telluride, are used in infrared detectors, which are employed in thermal imaging systems, among other applications. Certain data storage devices, known as phase-change memory, use tellurium-containing materials such as germanium-antimony-telluride. Short electrical pulses cause this material to transition to either a disordered or a crystalline state. Since it conducts electricity differently depending on its state, the two states can be interpreted as digital 0 and 1.
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